Gender Roles in the Value Chain of Farmed Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) in Kakamega County, Kenya
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.2200/aerj.v4i2.178Keywords:
Fish Farmer, Gender Disaggregated Data, AquacultureAbstract
Aquaculture value chains provide a significant level of income and employment globally directly and indirectly. However, availability of gender disaggregated data on the contribution of the sector to the livelihoods is limited. This has resulted in women’s contribution in aquaculture being perceived as supportive and not equal player despite the many strides women are making in the sector. Therefore, the present study was conducted to evaluate the gender roles along the farmed tilapia value-chain in Kakamega County, Kenya. Respondents totaling 265 comprised of 200 fish farmers, 5 input suppliers, 30 traders and 30 consumers were sampled and interviewed using questionnaire. Descriptive statistics and Chi-square were used to analyze the data. Results revealed that producers/fish farmer’s segment was dominated by males (74.24%) compared to female (25.76%). Input suppliers comprised of one female and four males. Majority of fish traders were female (66.7%) compared to male (33.3%). Lastly, consumers comprised of more males (56.7%) than females (43.3%). Gendered data showed that men were mainly undertaking laborious activities such as pond construction, pond preparation, pond management, fish harvesting and fish feeding while women were mainly involved in fish trade and marketing. The only female input suppliers was involved in fingerling production while the males were engaged in all activities from fingerling production, feed supply, to supply of equipment. The identified gender obstacles along the value chain included limited land access by women, labor intensiveness, lack of capital, long payback time, poor aquaculture perception by women and inadequate information on aquaculture. Chi square test revealed no significant association between gender and various socio-economic variables (participation in training activities, technical assistance and source of assistance) except for belonging to groups (p = 0.0477). The men’s dominance in fish production probably explains cultural favoritism that allows them to easily access and own land which boosts their capital. Conversely, women probably dominated traders’ segment due to intrinsic management skills as de facto home managers. Nevertheless, there is need to break gender barriers to ensure recognition of women contributions to aquaculture.
References
Ahmed, M. and M. H. Lorica (2002). Improving developing country food security through aquaculture development—lessons from Asia. Food Policy 27: 125-141.
Ajani, O. I. Y. (2008). Gender dimensions of agriculture, poverty, nutrition and food security in Nigeria. International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). Nigeria
Akter, S., Rutsaert, P., Luis, J., Htwe, N. M., San, S. S., Raharjo, B., & Pustika, A. (2017). Women’s empowerment and gender equity in agriculture: A different perspective from Southeast Asia. Food Policy, 69, 270-279.
Alleway, H. K., Gillies, C. L., Bishop, M. J., Gentry, R. R., Theuerkauf, S. J. and Jones, R. (2019). The ecosystem services of marine aquaculture: Valuing benefits to people and nature. BioScience 69: 59-68. doi: 10.1093/biosci/biy137.
Agbayani, R. F. (2012). Issues and challenges in sustainable fisheries development of the Southeast Asian Region: Aquaculture: Integrating aquaculture in rural development in Southeast Asia. In The Southeast Asian State of Fisheries and Aquaculture 2012 (pp. 76-81). Secretariat, Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center.
Africa, F. (2016). Report on Market Study of the Aquaculture Market in Kenya. Kenya Market- Led Aquaculture Programme (KMAP). Nairobi. Kenya.
Barman, B. K. (2001). Women in small-scale aquaculture in North-West Bangladesh. Gender, Technology and Development, 5(2), 267-287.
Bosma, R. H, Nguyen, T. D., Calumpang, L. M. and Carandang, S. A. (2019). Gender action plans in the aquaculture value chain: what's missing? Reviews in Aquaculture 11: 1297- 1307. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/raq.12293.
Brugere, C. E. C. I. L. E., & Williams, M. E. R. Y. L. (2017). Profile: women in aquaculture. https://genderaquafish. org/portfolio/women-in-aquaculture/. Acesso em, 6(04), 2020.
Brummett, R. E., Youaleu, J. L. N., Tiani, A. M. and Kenmegne, M. M. (2010). Women's traditional fishery and alternative aquatic resource livelihood strategies in the Southern Cameroonian Rainforest. Fisheries Management and Ecology, 17(3), 221-230.
Chenyambuga, S. W., Mwandya, A. Lamtane, H. A. and Madalla, N. A. (2014). Productivity and marketing of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) cultured in ponds of small-scale farmers in Mvomero and Mbarali districts, Tanzania. Livestock Research for Rural Development 26: 3-12.
Chete, O. B. (2019). Gender and agricultural practice in developing countries: Literature review. South Asian Journal of Social Studies and Economics, 1-11.
Cliffe, P. T., Akinrotimi, O. A. and Ibemere, I. F. (2011). Promoting women participation in aquaculture as a viable tool for poverty alleviation in the rural areas of Nigeria. Global Approaches to Extension Practice: A Journal of Agricultural Extension, 7(1), 98-105.
CIDP (2018). Kakamega County Integrated Development Plan, 2018 – 2022. In Kakamega County Integrated Development Plan, 2018 – 2022, ed. Economic Planning & Investments The Department of Finance. Kakamega, Kenya: County Government of Kakamega.
Climate-Data (2020). Kakamega Climate Kenya. In Kakamega Climate Kenya: Climate- Data.org / AM OP / Open Street Map contributors.
Cliffe, P. T. (2015). Role of women in Fishery Activities in some coastal communities of Rivers state, Nigeria.
Costa, F. P., da Silva, F. N. L., Guedes, A. C. B., dos Santos Passos, P. H., de Quadros, M. L. A., Mendonça, R. C. and de Oliveira, L. C.(2020). Women in aquaculture: a case study in the Marajó archipelago, Brazil. Research, Society Development 9. doi: https://doi.org/10.33448/rsd-v9i7.3872
Dalsgaard, J. P. T., Dickson, M., Jagwe, J. and Longley, C. (2012). Uganda aquaculture value chains: strategic planning mission report..
Debashish, K. S., Shirin, M., Zaman, F., Ireland, M., Chapman, G. and Nandeesha, M. C. (1998). Strategies for addressing gender issues through aquaculture programs: approaches by CARE Bangladesh. In Strategies for addressing gender issues through aquaculture programs: approaches by CARE Bangladesh, Proceedings of the International Symposium on Women in Asian Fisheries, 5th Asian Fisheries Forum, Chiang Mai, Thailand, 147-156.
Delgado, C. L., Wada, N., Rosegrant, M. W., Meijer, S. and Ahmed, M. (2003). Outlook for fish to 2020: meeting global demand (Vol. 15). Intl food policy res inst.
Desai, S. (1994). Gender inequalities and demographic behavior. India, New York 16.
De Silva, S. S. (2000, January). A global perspective of aquaculture in the new millennium. In Technical Proceedings of the Conference on Aquaculture in the Third Millennium (pp. 431-459). Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific.
De Silva, D. A. M. (2011). Faces of women in global fishery value chains: Female involvement, impact and importance in the fisheries of developed and developing countries. Food and Agriculture Organization.
De Silva, S. S. (2000, January). A global perspective of aquaculture in the new millennium. In Technical Proceedings of the Conference on Aquaculture in the Third millennium (pp. 431-459). Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific.
Dionne, B. (1988). Black Women and Work: The Impact of Racially Constructed Gender Roles on the Sexual Division of Labour; Part Two. ProQuest. Fireweed, (26), 87
FAO (1996). Gender issues in the fisheries sector and effective participation. In Gender issues in the fisheries sector and effective participation, Workshop on Gender Roles and Issues in Artisanal Fisheries in West Africa.Lomé, Togo.
FAO (1999). Uganda Soil Fertility Initiaves. Draft Concept Paper. Oxford: Oxfam MOEHL.
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). (2012). The state of world fisheries and aquaculture. Opportunities andchallenges.
FAO (2013). Mainstreaming gender in fisheries and aquaculture. A stock-taking and planning exercise, Rome. 55pp
Farid, F. B., Latifa, G. A., Nahid, M. N. and Begum, M. (2014). Comparative study of the sensory scores, quality and shelf life study of dry and pickle salted shoal (C. striatus; Bloch, 1801) at room temperature (27-31 C). International Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Studies, 2(1), 157-163.
Farm Africa (2016). Gender Impact study of the Kenya market -led Aquaculture program (KMAP)
Ferreira, J. G, Falconer, L. Kittiwanich, J., Ross, L., Saurel, C., Wellman, K., Zhu, C. and Suvanachai, P. (2015). Analysis of Production and Environmental Effects of Nile Tilapia and White Shrimp Culture in Thailand. Aquaculture 447: 23-36. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2014.08.042
Gopal, N., Hapke, H. M., Kusakabe, K., Rajaratnam, S. and Williams, M. J. (2020). Expanding the horizons for women in fisheries and aquaculture. Gender, Technology and Development, 24:1, 1-9, DOI: 10.1080/09718524.2020.1736353
Gee, J. and Bacher, K. (2017). Engendering statistics for fisheries and aquaculture. Asian Fisheries Science: 277-290.
Githukia, C. M., Drexler, S., Obiero, K. O., Nyawanda, B. O., Achieng’Ochieng, J., Chesoli, J. W. and Manyala, J. O. (2020). Gender roles and constraints in theaquaculture value chain in Western Kenya. African Journal of Agricultural Research 16: 732-745. doi: https://doi.org/10.5897/AJAR2020.14783.
Halwart, M. (2003). The role of aquaculture in rural development. Review of the State of World Aquaculture, FAO, Rome, 47-58.
Hishamunda, N., Cai, J. and Leung, P. (2009). Commercial aquaculture and economic growth, poverty alleviation and food security (No. 512). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)
Jagger, P. and Pender, J. (2001). Markets, marketing and production issues for aquaculture in East Africa: The case of Uganda.https://ir.library.oregonstate.edu/concern/conference_proceedings_or_journals/28 01ph212
Kaminski, A. M., Genschick, S., Kefi, A. S. and Kruijssen, F. (2018). Commercialization and upgrading in the aquaculture value chain in Zambia. Aquaculture, 493, 355-364.
Kantor, P. (2013). Transforming gender relations: Key to positive development outcomes in aquatic agricultural systems. https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12348/785
Kaplinsky, R. and Moris, M. (2000). A Hand book for Value Chain Research. Prepared for the IDRC. Retrieved March 2008 from http://www.ids.ac.uk/ids/global/odfs/vchNov 01odf.
Kiumbuku, S., Mutinda, J. and Bernard, J. (2013). Forms of Gender Inequalities in Fish Farming in Kwanza Division, Trans Nzoia County
Kenya. Research on Humanities and Social Sciences. 3(15) pg 1-9.
Kizito, P., Kimani, E. and Lodiaga, M. (2017). Ventures Within Fisheries Value Chain that Men and Women Participate in Nairobi City County, Kenya. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 4(8).
Kruijssen, F., McDougall, C. and Imke van Asseldonk (2017). Gender and Aquaculture Value Chains: A Review of Key Issues and Implications for Research. Aquaculture. doi: 10.1016/j.aquaculture.2017.12.038
Kruijssen, F., McDougall, C. L. and van Asseldonk, I. J. (2018). Gender and aquaculture value chains: A review of key issues and implications for research. Aquaculture, 493, 328-337.
Kumar, M. S. (2014). Fisheries and Aquaculture for Food Security and Nutrition: Global and Indian Perspective.
Kusakabe, K. (2003). Women's involvement in small-scale aquaculture in Northeast Thailand. Development in Practice 13: 333-345. doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/0961452032000112392
Lovshin, L. L. (2000). Criteria for selecting Nile tilapia and red tilapia for culture. In Criteria for selecting Nile tilapia and red tilapia for culture, Tilapia Aquaculture in the 21st Century Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: American Tilapia Association: Departamento de Pesca e Aqüicultura.
Maina, J. G., Mbuthia, P. G. and Gugi, J. (2014). Influence of social economic factors, Gender and the fish farming enterprise and productivity project on fish farming practices in Kenya
Monfort, M. C. (2015). The role of women in the seafood industry. In The role of women in the seafood industry, 67. Rome: Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations and The Globla Research Programme.
Morgan, M., Terry, G., Rajaratnam, S. and Pant, J. (2017). Socio‐cultural dynamics shaping the potential of aquaculture to deliver development outcomes. Reviews in Aquaculture 9: 317-325. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/raq.12137
Mudege, N. N., Mdege, N., Abidin, P. E. Bhatasara, S. and Culture (2017). The role of gender norms in access to agricultural training in Chikwawa and Phalombe, Malawi. Gender, Place 24: 1689-1710. do https://doi.org/10.1080/0966369X.2017.1383 363
Mugenda, O. and Mugenda, A. (2003). Research Methods;“Qualitative and quantitative Approaches” Acts Press Nairobi.
Mustapha, A. (2020). Improving the Quality of Aquafeed for an Effective Food Security in Small Scale African Aquaculture. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews 7: 274–282. doi: https://doi.org/10.30574/wjarr.2020.7.3.0349
Nandeesha, M. C. (2009). Enhance women participation in aquaculture to ensure sustainability. In Enhance women participation in aquaculture to ensure sustainability, Strengthening capacity of small holder ASEAN aquaculture farmers for competitive and sustainable aquaculture. Bangok:
NACA Secretariat.Nasr-Allah, A., Gasparatos, A., Karanja, A., Dompreh, E. B., Murphy, S., Rossignoli, C. M., Phillips, M. and Charo-Karisa, H. (2020). Employment generation in the Egyptian aquaculture value chain: implications for meeting the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Aquaculture 520. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2020.73 4940.
Nathan, D. and Apu, N. A. (1998). Women's Independent Access to Productive Resources: Fish Ponds in the Oxbow Lakes Project, Bangladesh. Gender, technology and development, 2(3), 397-413.
Nayak, N. (2000, May). Gender, globalisation and fisheries: The Indian response. In Gender, globalization and fisheries workshop (pp. 6-12).
Nwabeze, G. O. and Erie, A. P. (2013). Artisanal Fishers’ Use of Sustainable Fisheries Management Practices in the Jebba Lake Basin, Nigeria. Journal of Agricultural Extension, 17(1), 123-134.
Ndanga, L. Z. B., Quagrainie, K. K. and Dennis, J. H. (2013). Economically feasible options for increased women participation in Kenyan aquaculture value chain. Aquaculture 414: 183-190. doi: 10.1016/j.aquaculture.2017.12.038.
Obiero, K. O., Waidbacher, H., Nyawanda, B. O., Munguti, J. M., Manyala, J. O. and Kaunda- Arara, B. (2019). Predicting uptake of aquaculture technologies among smallholder fish farmers in Kenya. Aquaculture International 27: 1689-1707. doi: 10.1007/s10499-019-00423-0
Odulate, D. O., George, F. O. A. and Idowu, A. A. (2011, September). Role of women in fisheries in coastal wetland areas of Ogun State, Southwest Nigeria. In Proceedings of the Environmental Management Conference. Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria.
Ogutu, G. E. M. (1992). Socio-economic conditions of artisanal fishermen and fish traders. In Artisanal fisheries of Lake Victoria, Kenya: Options for management, production and marketing. Proceeding of a workshop for the Artisanal Fisheries (Kenya) Project, held in Kisumu, Kenya. Shiriisho Publishers Nairobi (pp. 15-44)..
Okello, D. O. (2010). Factors influencing involvement of women in agriculture in Yala Division of Gem District-Kenya (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi, Kenya).
Okello, J. J., Kirui, O., Gitonga, Z. M., Njiraini, G. W. and Nzuma, J. M. (2014). Determinants of awareness and use ICT-based market information services in developing-country agriculture: The case of smallholder farmers in Kenya. Quarterly Journal of International Agriculture.
Pandey, D. K. (2014). Constraints to women’s involvement in small scale aquaculture: an exploratory study. International Journal of Agricultural Extension 2: 81-88.
Phillips, M., Subasinghe, R. P., Tran, N. Kassam, L. and Chan, C. Y. (2016). Aquaculture big numbers. In Aquaculture big numbers. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
Ramachandran, C. (2012). “A Sea of One’s Own!” A Perspective on Gendered Political Ecology in Indian Mariculture. Asian Fisheries Science Special Issue, 1-12.
Riisgaard, L., Fibla, A. M. and Ponte, S. (2010). Evaluation study: gender and value chain development. Copenhagen: The Evaluation Department of the Danish Foreign
Sexsmith, K. S. C. and Speller, W. (2017). How to improve gender equality in agriculture, investment in agriculture policy brief# 5. International Institute for Sustainable Development.
Subasinghe, R.P., Arthur, J. R., Bartley, D. M., De Silva, S. S., Halwart, M., Hishamunda, N.,Mohan C. V. and Sorgeloos, P. (2010). Farming the Waters for People and Food. Proceedings of the Global Conference on Aquaculture 2010, Phuket, Thailand. 22–25 September 2010. pp. 785–874. FAO, Rome and NACA, Bangkok.
Subasinghe, R., Soto, D., and Jia, J. (2009). Global aquaculture and its role in sustainable development. Reviews in Aquaculture, 1(1), 2-9.
Rutaisire, J., Kabonesa, C. Okechi, J. K. and Boera, P. N. (2010). Lake Victoria Basin: Gender Issues in Fish Farming. In Natural Resource Management. The Impact of Gender and Social Issues, eds. F Flintan and S Tedla: International Development Research Center (IDRC).
Tuwor, T. and Sossou, M. (2008). Gender discrimination and education in West Africa: strategies for maintaining girls in school. International Journal of Inclusive Education 12: 363-379. doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/13603110601183115
Unterhalter, E. and North, A. (2011). Responding to the gender and education Millennium Development Goals in South Africa and Kenya: Reflections on education rights, gender equality, capabilities and global justice. Compare: A Journal of ComparativeInternational Education 41: 495-511. doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/03057925.2011.581516
Weeratunge-starkloff, N. and Pant, J. (2011). Gender and aquaculture: Sharing the benefits equitably. In Gender and aquaculture: Sharing the benefits equitably, 12. Penang, Malaysia: The WorldFish Cente.
Weeratunge, N., Snyder, K. A. and Sze, C. P. (2010). Gleaner, fisher, trader, processor: understanding gendered employment in fisheries and aquaculture. Fish Fisheries 11: 405-420. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467- 2979.2010.00368.x
Williams, M. J., Porter, M., Choo, P. S., Kusakabe, K., Vuki, V., Gopal, N. and Reantaso, B. (2012). Guest editorial: genderin aquaculture and fisheries-moving the agenda forward. Asian Fisheries Science. World fish centre. Issues Brief/2011-32;
